Orchestra - Strings

The String Choir

The string section consists of basically four instruments, the violin, viola, cello and double bass. Each of these instruments plays a specific role. They are basically separated by the frequency register each has the ability to play within the Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass spectrum. Violins are the soprano instruments, violas are the alto instruments, cellos are the tenor or bass instrument and double bass is the bass instrument. The reason that the cello also can fall into being a bass instrument is because it has the ability to play in that register. If you look at a piece of music written for piano, it is often written with three or four part harmony. While it is perfectly feasible to take each voice of this harmony and apply it to the appropriate string instrument, it doesn't always result in the most interesting sound. In order for it to sound interesting, there needs to be movement throughout the piece to be pleasing to the ear. Each of these instruments do not just represent the voice in the SATB spectrum, but they also play a rhythmic role as well. The variation in articulations of each instrument should be considered when scoring.

The Standard String Quartet

  • Violin 1
  • Violin 2
  • Viola
  • Cello

The Standard String Quintet

  • Violin 1
  • Violin 2
  • Viola
  • Cello
  • Double Bass

Violin

The violin is the soprano instrument of the string section.
Tuning: G3 D4 A4 E5
Range: G3 to E7

Violin Strings
Fret G String D String A String E String
0 G3 D4 A4 E5
1 G#3 / Ab3 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4 F5
2 A3 E4 B4 F#5 / Gb5
3 A#3 / Bb3 F4 C5 G5
4 B3 F#4 / Gb4 C#5 / Db5 G#5 / Ab5
5 C4 G4 D5 A5
6 C#4 / Db4 G#4 / Ab4 D#5 / Eb5 A#5 / Bb5
7 D4 A4 E5 B5
8 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4 F5 C6
9 E4 B4 F#5 / Gb5 C#6 / Db6
10 F4 C5 G5 D6
11 F#4 / Gb4 C#5 / Db5 G#5 / Ab5 D#6 / Eb6
12 G4 D5 A5 E6
13 G#4 / Ab4 D#5 / Eb5 A#5 / Bb5 F6
14 A4 E5 B5 F#6 / Gb6
15 A#4 / Bb4 F5 C6 G6
16 B4 F#5 / Gb5 C#6 / Db6 G#6 / Ab6
17 C5 G5 D6 A6
18 C#5 / Db5 G#5 / Ab5 D#6 / Eb6 A#6 / Bb6
19 D5 A5 E6 B6
20 D#5 / Eb5 A#5 / Bb5 F6 C7

Viola

The viola is the alto instrument of the string section and it's playing technique is similar to that of the violin.

The notation of the viola is usually notated with the Alto Clef. The viola's four strings are normally tuned in fifths: the lowest string is C3 (an octave below middle C), with G3, D4, and A4 above it. This tuning is exactly one fifth below the violin, so that they have three strings in common G, D, and A and is one octave above the cello.

Tuning: C3 G3 D4 A4
Range: C3 to E6

Viola Strings
Fret C String G String D String A String
0 C3 G3 D4 A4
1 C#3 / Db3 G#3 / Ab3 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4
2 D3 A3 E4 B4
3 D#3 / Eb3 A#3 / Bb3 F4 C5
4 E3 B3 F#4 / Gb4 C#5 / Db5
5 F3 C4 G4 D5
6 F#3 / Gb3 C#4 / Db4 G#4 / Ab4 D#5 / Eb5
7 G3 D4 A4 E5
8 G#3 / Ab3 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4 F5
9 A3 E4 B4 F#5 / Gb5
10 A#3/Bb3 F4 C5 G5
11 B3 F#4 / Gb4 C#5 / Db5 G#5 / Ab5
12 C4 G4 D5 A5
13 C#4 / Db4 G#4 / Ab4 D#5 / Eb5 A#5 / Bb5
14 D4 A4 E5 B5
15 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4 F5 C6

Cello

The Cello is both the tenor and the bass of the string section. The cello or violoncello is a bowed (sometimes plucked and occasionally hit) string instrument of the violin family. Its four strings are usually tuned in perfect fifths: from low to high, C2, G2, D3 and A3. The viola's four strings are each an octave higher.

Music for the cello is generally written in the bass clef, with tenor clef and treble clef used for higher-range passages.

Tuning: C2 G2 D3 A3
Range: C2 to C6

Viola Strings
Fret C String G String D String A String
0 C2 G2 D3 A3
1 C#2 / Db2 G#2 / Ab2 D#3 / Eb3 A#3 / Bb3
2 D2 A2 E3 B3
3 D#2 / Eb2 A#2 / Bb2 F3 C4
4 E2 B2 F#3 / Gb3 C#4 / Db4
5 F2 C3 G3 D4
6 F#2 / Gb2 C#3 / Db3 G#3 / Ab3 D#4 / Eb4
7 G2 D3 A3 E4
8 G#2 / Ab2 D#3 / Eb3 A#3 / Bb3 F4
9 A2 E3 B3 F#4 / Gb4
10 A#2 / Bb2 F3 C4 G4
11 B2 F#3 / Gb3 C#4 / Db4 G#4 / Ab4
12 C3 G3 D4 A4
13 C#3 / Db3 G#3 / Ab3 D#4 / Eb4 A#4 / Bb4
14 D3 A3 E4 B4
15 D#3 / Eb3 A#3 / Bb3 F4 C5

Double Bass

The double bass, also known simply as the bass (or by other names), is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed (or plucked) string instrument in the modern symphony orchestra (excluding unorthodox additions such as the octobass). Similar in structure to the cello, it has four, although occasionally five, strings.

The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths. The standard tuning (lowest-pitched to highest-pitched) for bass is E1, A1, D2, G2, starting from E below second low C (concert pitch). This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of standard guitar tuning. The double bass is notated an octave higher than it actually sounds.

Four String Tuning:  E1  A1  D2  G2
Five String Tuning:  C1  E1  A1  D2  G2
Range: E1 or C1 to Bb3

Viola Strings
Fret C String E String A String D String G String
0 C1 E1 A1 D2 G3
1 C#1 / Db1 F1 A#1 / Bb1 D#2 / Eb2 G#2 / Ab2
2 D1 F#1 / Gb1 B1 E2 A2
3 D#1 / Eb1 G1 C2 F2 A#2 / Bb2
4 E1 G#1 / Ab1 C#2 / Db2 F#2 / Gb2 B2
5 F1 A1 D2 G2 C3
6 F#1 / Gb1 A#1 / Bb1 D#2 / Eb2 G#2 / Ab2 C#3 / Db3
7 G1 B1 E2 A2 D3
8 G#1 / Ab1 C2 F2 A#2 / Bb2 D#3 / Eb3
9 A1 C#2 / Db2 F#2 / Gb2 B2 E3
10 A#1 / Bb1 D2 G2 C3 F3
11 B1 D#2 / Eb2 G#2 / Ab2 C#3 / Db3 F#3 / Gb3
12 C2 E2 A2 D3 G3
13 C#2 / Db2 F2 A#2 / Bb2 D#3 / Eb3 G#3 / Ab3
14 D2 F#2 / Gb2 B2 E3 A3
15 D#2 / Eb2 G2 C3 F3 A#3 / Bb3

Bowed Instruments

The Bow

The bow used in bowed instruments has two ends, the Tip, the part that is away from the hand holding the bow, and the Frog, the part where the hand grips the bow.

Stops

Playing more than one note on a stringed instrument are called stops. Two notes are called double stops, three notes are called triple stops and four notes are called quadruple stops.

Bowed Instrument Articulations

Slurred Bowing Whenever a passage is slurred, all notes within that slur are performed on one bow, meaning that all are played in one bow stroke. Normally this produces smooth or legato playing. Legato means "bound together".
Non-Slurred Bowing In a passage with no notated slurs, each pitch is normally performed by changing the direction of the bow, detaching each note from the next.
Loure This essentially legato bowing is accomplished by slightly separating notes while the bow is being drawn across the string. It can produce a very expressive effect and is used often in accompaniments. This bowing is indicated by dashes under or over each of the noteheads, with slurs to designate the bow changes.

Off-The-String Bowings

Spiccato There are three distinct ways of performing spiccato bowings. All depend upon the speed and the dynamics of the passage.
Conscious Spiccato In a slow or moderate tempo, the player makes a conscious effort to make the bow bounce.
Spontaneous Spiccato (Saltando) At fast tempo the player does not have to make a conscious effort to lift the bow; rather, the short, quick up-down motion controlled by the wrist alone makes the bow bounce spontaneously off the string with every stroke.
Slurred Spiccato Performing spiccato in a single bowing.
Arpeggiando A slightly different kind of spiccato. This bowing may begin with a simple on-the-string slurring of an arpeggio played over three or four strings at a moderate tempo, but at a fast tempo, the bow will spontaneously bounce off the strings because of the motion of the wrist.
Trills The trill is extensively used in all string instruments. Trills are executed by holding down the string of the pitch printed in the score with the appropriate finger and playing and releasing the next higher note with the adjacent upper finger as rapidly as possible for the entire value of the printed note.
Pizzicato This is a technique that is performed without the bow. The string is plucked. It can be done with a single string or multiple strings.
A graphical range of the range of violins, violas, cellos and double bass

Composing for a String Choir

The experimentation by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven with string quartets had far reaching effects on the successful establishment of a five-part string choir, the forebear of the virtuosic string ensemble we find in today's orchestra.

Individuality Within The Ensemble

The Double Bass

In the music of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, it was usual for the bass to double the cello in most passages, especially in tutti sections. In passages where a lighter string texture was desired, the double bass was eliminated. Independent double bass parts became increasingly popular during the 19th century, as the cello took on the role of tenor voice of the strings.

Foreground, Middleground and Background

Foreground

The most important voice, usually the melody which the composer wants to be heard most prominently. The composer must consider each of the elements, particularly the foreground line, with regard to its tonal compass and the desired emotional intensity. If the principal idea is to be scored for strings, the ranges and registers characteristic of each of its five instruments must be considered. After these decisions have been made, the scoring of the main theme, idea, or gesture will then provide clues for the scoring of the middleground and background material.

Middleground

Counter melodies or important contrapuntal material. This is where counterpoint comes into play.

Background

Accompaniment, either chordal or using polyphonic or melodic figures. Many composers recommend staying away fro the register of the melody line. In many instances, especially when the foreground and background are played by instruments of similar color, this is good advice.

Using Textural and Timbral Changes to Differentiate Between Melodic Statements

Sometimes a forceful unison or octave statement of a theme is used in presenting the antecedent of an idea, followed by a change of texture in the consequent that emphasizes its different emotional quality.

Coupling

Coupling is when two instruments play a passage at parallel intervals, such as parallel 3rds or parallel 5ths.

Unisons and Octaves

Using string unisons or octave doublings to create a more powerful melodic statement.

Contrapuntal Writing For Strings

Two or more melodies superimposed on one another result in a contrapuntal texture. But in orchestral music there is a gray area between foreground melodic material, middleground melodic material, and background melodic material, a factor that can present problems for the orchestrator or composer. The difficulties are twofold: First, one must sort out which melodies belong to which of the three categories so that each melody clearly communicates to the listener whether it is primary, secondary, or tertiary material. Second, rather than becoming overwhelmed by the vast array of choices of orchestral color, one must limit one's choices, particularly if the passage is to be repeated and a different choice is used for the repetition.

Beethoven, Symphony No. 7

Beethoven has the first violins play the very simple tune, the seconds play the counter theme, and the violas, cellos, and double basses supply the background harmony. Even though the voices are close together in register and homogeneous in sound, the passage works successfully for two reasons:

  1. Each of the three parts has its own characteristic rhythm and special articulation.
  2. The foreground and middleground themes were introduced earlier without the background (the first theme was played all by itself at the beginning of the movement) and were more clearly heard at the time.

The manner in which these factors add clarity to this passage may help suggest ways of solving the sometimes complex problems that involve distinguishing between foreground, middleground, and background material.

Polyphonic Writing

Polyphonic writing for strings has been popular since the late Renaissance and early Baroque, when English as well as Italian masters, and later Bach and Handel, firmly established this type of instrumental style. Since all five voices of the string choir are capable of performing equally elaborate gestures, all contrapuntal textures can be successfully written for the string section. Many times the exposition of a fugue or fugato subject is assigned to the strings before it is developed, altered or doubled by other members of the orchestra, a compositional method that has proven to be most effective.

When contrapuntal passages are to be scored by strings alone, two major points to consider are clarity and balance. These must be achieved by:

  1. Placing the most important melody in the best possible register of an instrument.
  2. Thinning the counterpoint to let the main theme break through.
  3. Registrally separating theme and counter theme (one high, one low, or vice versa).
  4. Making the counter theme sufficiently different rhythmically from the primary theme that they don't interfere with one another when the two are stated together.

Homophonic Writing For Strings

One of the orchestrator's most important tasks is the distribution of pitches in a predominantly homophonic passage. Spacing, register, and melodic considerations are the major factors in determining exactly who should play which pitches, especially in string writing, where the overall coloring is so homogeneous.

Chordal Spacing and Pitch Doubling

We will examine chordal spacing and pitch doubling in terms of how these might correspond to the overtone series. First we need to define what the overtone series is.

Overtone Series

An overtone is any partial above the lowest partial. A partial is any of the sine waves or simple tones of which a complex tone is composed, not necessarily with an integer multiple of the lowest harmonic. A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The fundamental is obviously a harmonic because it is one times itself. A harmonic partial is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches (or nearly matches) an ideal harmonic. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no other special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is mostly the relative strength of the different overtones that give an instrument its particular timbre, tone color, or character. When writing or speaking of overtones and partials numerically, care must be taken to designate each correctly to avoid any confusion of one for the other, so the second overtone may not be the third partial, because it is the second sound in a series.

Some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones (a sine wave). Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to simulate other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones.

Overtone Series on E:

E2, E3, B3, E4, G#4, B4, D5, E5, F#5, G#5, A#5, B5, C#6, D6, D#6, E6

Using the Overtone series To Space A Chord:

Notes spaced on a grand staff
Chord Spacing 1
E6 Violin 1
G#5 Violin 1
E5 Violin 2
B4 Violin 2
E4 Viola
G#3 Viola
B3 Cello
E2 Cello
E1 Double Bass
Notes spaced on a grand staff
Chord Spacing 2
G#6 Violin 1
B5 Violin 1
E5 Violin 2
G#4 Violin 2
E4 Viola
B3 Viola
G#3 Cello
B3 Cello
E2 Double Bass

Both chords can be played piano or forte. The first would sound a bit darker than the second because of the lower octave of the basses and the wider spacing at the top, but the difference is not great. All instruments are assigned a traditional place in the distribution. Notice the greater space is usually left between pitches of the lower instruments than between those of the upper instruments, just as there are greater distances between the more sonorous lower partials than between the upper partials of the overtone series.

Scoring Closely Spaced Chords

Notes spaced on a grand staff

Spacing the chords more closely gives the composer more choices in the distribution of parts, because different instruments can play the same role. A progression using closely spaced chords may be scored in one of the following ways:

  1. Straightforward Scoring - Violin I, soprano; violin II, alto; viola, tenor; cello, bass; double bass, doubling the cello an octave lower. This scoring would result in a rather nondescript setting if the dynamic were piano to mezzo forte, but would prove very bass heavy if the dynamic were loud, since the violas, cellos, and basses are in a much better register than the violins.
  2. Violas divisi on the upper two parts, cellos divisi on the lower two. The result of this combination would be a very mellow, darkish sound.
  3. Number 2, but adding the bass an octave lower, which would greatly darken the line.
  4. Violin I, the soprano, violin II or violas divisi on alto and tenor. This would give a slightly lighter but still subdued color to the progression.
  5. All cellos, with the basses doubling the bassline at pitch. This would of course, be very intense.
  6. The entire progression transposed up one octave, then two octaves, without the double bass, this would be quite sparkling.

If there were a first inversion chord in the previous score, we would have an additional doubling problem, since it is not common practice to double the bass (the 3rd) except when the chordal root is scale degree 1 ( VI6 ), 2 ( VII6 ), 4 ( II6 ), 5 ( III6 ). In the often used I6, IV6, and V6 chords, special attention should be given to spacing and doubling so that the bass is not doubled in a four voice texture; if there are more than four voices, the 3rd of the chord (its bass) would invariably be doubled somewhere to strengthen it. In this case, it is advisable to double it near the bottom of the texture to bring out the "open" sound so characteristic of this inversion, as in the chords that are marked "good" in the following example. The chords designated "not good" show that the 3rd of the chord is overdoubled, thereby weakening the first inversion effect of the chord.

Doubling in First Inversion Chords

Notes spaced on a grand staff

Melody To Be Scored

Notes spaced on a grand staff

How Can This Be Scored:

  1. It can be played by the 1st violins without accompaniment.
  2. It can be played by the 2nd violins and doubled by the 1st violins an octave higher.
  3. It can be doubled at the unison by another instrument combination
    1. violins 1 and 2.
    2. violins and violas
    3. violins and cellos
    4. violas and cellos
  4. It can be played sul G on the violin.
  5. It can be played as a viola or a cello solo, since both instruments would be more intense in that register than the violins.
  6. It could be played in unison by all of the violins.

Transcribing From Piano To Strings

There are a variety of ways to accomplish this task, but the most important consideration is realizing the composer's intent without introducing any distortion of it. Pay attention to not only the notes of a piece, but also the rhythm of the piece to be transcribed. Strings are great for expressing legato phrases, but they are also capable of using articulations to express more rhythmic passages. Listen to George Martin's scoring for Eleanor Rigby to see how he created a rhythm with the cellos.

The Piano Sustain Pedal

The piano sustain pedal must be taken into consideration when scoring a piano piece. The sustained notes from the piano score should be mimicked by the string score in some way.

Transcribing To Simulate Sustaining Pedal

Piano Version

Note in the following string interpretations of this piano piece how the piano pedal is mimicked using the two lower voices and legato in the higher voices.

String Version 1

String Version 2

String Version 3

Dovetailing

Dovetailing is a carpentry term that has been borrowed for orchestration. The interlocking pieces of wood are in the shape of a dove's tail, but the effect is a seamless joint that is very strong. A composer may score a passage where the shared note on the entrance of a second instrument makes it sound like the first instrument "morphs" into the second instrument.

Example of Dovetailing

Piano Piece:

String Interpretation of Piano Piece Using Dovetailing: